I sometimes have students who jump into my beginning Rhetoric (I) course, or my advanced Rhetoric (II) course without having learned basic composition skills. To help these students, I offer this handy guide to Classical Rhetoric on one page. Keep in mind that I’m explaining the ancient Greco-Roman approach to rhetoric, in contrast with the approach I explain in my TEDx Talk.
What is Rhetoric?
Aristotle defines Rhetoric as “the faculty of understanding in any given case the available means of persuasion.” In ancient times, the study of rhetoric was education. People studied to be able to communicate in many different fields. Still, many rhetors in the ancient world became lawyers or politicians because of the power of the faculty they had developed. In the sense that Classical Rhetoric describes, Rhetoric is simply the study and practice of clear presentation and persuasion. It is the etiquette of thought.
The Three Modes of Persuasion—Ethos, Pathos and Logos
Ethos is the appearance of the communicator’s character. You have four ways of enhancing your ethos: (1) show intelligence
by being informed (but don’t be pompous); (2) establish good moral character (don’t open your paper by demonstrating that you are a liar); (3) establish goodwill (make sure they know you won’t mug them); and (4) speak in a voice and style consistent with your situation (Don’t visit the White House and address the President as “Homie-G-Butter-Funk.”
Pathos is the state of mind of the audience. It is an appeal to their emotions and desires. Appealing to an audience’s emotions does not mean that all of your discourse should whip your audience into a Bacchic frenzy. Making angry people calm is still attending to the state of your audience’s mind (Warning!!! The proof of your discourse should not rest entirely on pathos.)
Logos is the raw proof, the facts, the meat of the argument. Logos means word. It is the meaning of what you’re saying and your piece’s logic. The teachers of Classical Rhetoric, for the most part, taught that people are persuaded through arguments. Emotions are moved by evidence or testimony presented in the form of a story. If the fact of a person starving is not proven then we will not feel pity for them. The emotions follow judgments.
Five Canons of Rhetoric
Invention: This is the creation of content and proofs. I should note here that there are three kinds of topics one can address here: questions of past, present, or future fact. A discourse on past fact tries to convince you that something in fact happened. Trial Oratory is Rhetoric of past fact. The goal is to prove guilt or lack thereof. Discourses of present fact try to prove that something is now the case. Ceremonies usually feature this type of speech or reading, by bringing either honor or censure. Finally discourse on future fact tries to show that something will happen in the future. This is done to affect human decisions now. We call this type of rhetoric Political or Deliberative Oratory.
Arrangement: All our discourse must be ordered. Below is a basic arrangement for a discourse. When ordering your arguments, put your second strongest argument first. Then start with the weakest and build to the strongest last. Sandwiching your arguments in this way will help to bring victory as armies well-ordered for battle.
Style: Considering your subject and your audience. Chose a style suitable to both. There are three types of style: Grand, Middle and Simple. There are three aberrations of good style, which match the good types of style: Swollen, the Slack or Drifting, and the Meager. Figures and ornaments of speech are also part of style.
Memory: Memory is the retaining of your preparation within the mind. There are two kinds of memory, Natural and Artificial.
Natural Memory is our own natural faculty to retain past knowledge. Artificial Memory is the use of systems which aid the natural memory. There are many tools of Artificial Memory, everything from word and picture association to prepared speaking notes.
Delivery: Delivery is the presentation of a discourse. Written delivery comprises formatting and mechanics. Oral delivery has two parts, voice quality and physical embodiment, according to the teacher of Classical Rhetoric. The voice has three qualities: volume, stability, and flexibility. Each of these should be suited to the dialog and the audience, along with accompanying physical movement.
Six Parts of a Discourse
Every discourse has these six parts. Usually they are in this order, but sometimes we may want to shuffle the order. (If you speak to an audience that will not accept your argument, you may need to refute counterarguments before you begin your introduction.
Introduction: In the Introduction, make your audience attentive, receptive, and well-disposed. Consider moving your audience to a frame of mind that will make them most receptive to your case (pathos). There are two types of Introductions: direct and subtle. Subtle is used in doubtful cases. In your Introduction or your Division (below), you must state your thesis clearly, even in a subtle introduction.
Statement of Facts: Your paper must clearly explain the topic you wish to discuss. For an audience to accept proof, it must first accept the substance upon which it depends.
Division: Division comprises two parts: defining one’s terms and enumerating the points one wishes to discuss.
Proof: Obviously, a discourse aiming to prove a thesis must state arguments clearly.
Refutation: If necessary, as when your cause is doubtful, refute your opponent’s arguments or the counterarguments that may come to your reader’s mind.
Conclusion: In your conclusion, drive home the need for your argument to be accepted or motivate them to action. Use only as much force as the topic permits. If you prove that Bob Dylan is the greatest musician of the Twentieth Century, you will use different rhetorical force from what you would use when proving that the United States should go to war now!